Beyond nature: Investigating the restorative properties of environments through the comparison of historical, modern urban, and natural image exposures

The present study investigates the restorativeness, psychological, and psychophysiological benefits of exposure to different environments—natural, historical, mixed, and modern urban—using an immersive laboratory and AI-generated environments. Participants were exposed to environments prior to a stress-induction phase and completed self-reports alongside psychophysiological measurements (heart rate and electrodermal activity). Results revealed that natural and mixed environments were perceived as most restorative, whereas modern urban environments were rated as the least restorative and most negatively valenced. Historical environments, rated lower in a global score of restorativeness, were perceived as fascinating, coherent, engaging, and pleasant, and they increased positive emotions and reduced arousal levels after stress induction, similarly to natural environments. Historical settings were found to be the less boring environments. Overall, findings contribute to the evidence that both natural and certain built environments, particularly historical ones, can support emotional recovery and psychological well-being, whereas modern urban settings may hinder it.