Learning-based cognitive control: developmental trajectories in children aged 5- to 14- years

Learning-based cognitive control (CC)—the ability to implicitly adapt control based on contextual regularities—has been studied in young, typically developing children, yet its developmental trajectory remains underexplored. This study examined how learning-based CC develops across childhood under increasing cognitive demands. Overall, 149 children aged 5–14 years (79 females, M = 9.1 ± 2.6) completed a modified Flanker task and a cued go-noGo task (“Addy”). Both tasks included a List-Wide Proportion Congruency (LWPC) manipulation contrasting predictable (mostly congruent/valid) and unpredictable (50%) contexts. Reaction times (RTs), accuracy, and delta scores (incongruent/invalid–congruent/valid RTs) were analyzed. In the Flanker task, LWPC effects were similar across ages, suggesting that learning-based CC emerges early and remains stable in low-demand contexts. In contrast, in the Addy task—requiring greater attentional control and motor inhibition—developmental differences emerged. Younger children adapted behaviour by favoring speed over accuracy, while from around 9 years of age children displayed a more balanced speed–accuracy trade-off and improved accuracy, indicating greater efficiency in managing competing task demands. These findings suggest that learning-based inhibitory CC efficiency under complex, multi-demand conditions continues to develop across childhood and highlight the value of ecologically valid paradigms.