Number-action coupling across the lifespan: Sensorimotor foundations of numerical cognition

A growing body of evidence suggests that aspects of numerical cognition interact with action systems, particularly hand motor control, although the strength and nature of this coupling vary across tasks, devel- opmental stages, and cultural contexts. This narrative review synthesizes behavioral, developmental, comparative, and neurophysiological evidence to address four central questions: (1) how early the connec- tion between number and action emerges and how it changes with development; (2) the extent to which education and culture shape number-action coupling; (3) how aging alters these processes and their neural substrates; and (5) what number-action interactions reveal about the broader organization of shared cogni- tive and sensorimotor mechanisms. Although the evidence remains heterogeneous, as causal demonstra- tions remain limited and effects are often task-specific, this review nevertheless suggests that number-action mappings are present from infancy, supported by overlapping parietal-frontal networks, and are progres- sively refined through motor experience. Across childhood, finger gnosis and fine motor skills scaffold numerical development, while cultural practices such as finger-counting shape enduring representational formats. In adulthood, numerical magnitude and action show a robust bidirectional influence, with converging neuroimaging evidence for shared fronto-parietal substrates. In older age, despite executive slowing and motor decline, number-action overlap appears preserved via compensatory recruitment, and embodied interventions show promise. Together, these findings support a layered account in which action systems contribute to scaffold and modulate numerical cognition across the lifespan.